History of Nigeria free essay sample

Trace the history of Nigeria from pre-colonial era to date highlighting the leaders that rule the country at various levels, also indicate specific date of leadership. ? QUESTION: Trace the history of Nigeria from pre-colonial era to date highlighting the leaders that rule the country at various levels, also indicate specific date of leadership. INTRODUCTION For one to be able to do justice to a question of this nature, it would be better if one is at latitude to write without a constraint. However, going by given benchmark an attempt would be made to achieve this. Historically, the country Nigeria came about due largely to the merchant activities of the British traders whom in their quest for larger market, raw materials and the need to exert political influence overseas led them to kick start a project that resorted into a birth of what today is known and called Nigeria. Before this, there were series of activities of leaders of various organized communities like that of the Igbos, Ibibios, Hausa/Fulani and Yoruba as well as the advent of the colonialist and the amalgamation of protectorates, constitutional development cum nationalist movement which majorly facilitated the formation of Nigeria as well as the subsequent grant of independence. We will write a custom essay sample on History of Nigeria or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page EARLY HISTORY OF NIGERIA Nigeria was a creation of the British colonial adventurer and empire builder. The Match for markets, raw materials and the need to exert political nfluence overseas led Britain to journey to places as distant as Wikki in present day Borno State. To the Northwest; Sokoto came under her influence too. Deriving the name Nigeria from the word Niger the name of the river that constitutes the most remarkable geographical feature, the colonial master coupled together the diverse peoples North and South of the river and its tributary — the Benue — into a modem nation-state. The external influence resulting from this trade brought tremendous impact on Nigeria. From the late 15th Century, Europeans began frequenting the Bights of Benin (now the Bights of Bonny), in search of tropical products and slaves. By the eighteenth century, the ports of Nigerian coastlines, mainly Lagos, Brass, Bonny and Old Calahar, had become centres of the trans-atlantic slave trade. Trade routes from these ports extended through the comnmunities of the South to the Hausa States. But the industrial revolution and the advent of the machine made the trade unnecessary and unprofitable. The aftermath was an increased interest in palm oil trade. In 1849, the British Government appointed John Beecroft as the Governor of Bights of Benin and Bonny His job was to regulate commercial relations with the coastal city States. Backed by fierce gunboats, he interfered with the internal affairs of these States and the process which culminated in the imposition of colonial rule came afoot. There were also missionary interests at play. In 1861, Lagos was proclaimed crown colony. And through the initiative of the United Africa Company, formed by George Goldie, through an amalgamation of British firms in 1879, most of the parts which became Northern Nigeria were preserved as British sphere to the chagrin of French and German competitors. Nigeria was first administered by the colonial masters as kingdoms before it was gradually knitted together by an act of amalgamation. Bellow are the kingdoms under which Nigeria existed. Hausa/Fulani History has it that the Fulani took over the political leadership of the Habe (Hausa) states in the early 19th century. The Jihad that took place hitherto was seen as a religious one as well as political. Othman Dan Fodio led the Fulani Jihad and took over the political leadership of the entire Hausa state and established the Sokoto Caliphate with an outstanding centralized political system of government. He then introduced a new system of selecting and appointing rulers described as Emirs who were given powers to rule the caliphate. Each of the Emirs owed allegiance to Othman Dan Fodio and his two representatives in Gwandu and Sokoto. The caliphate was divided into emirates and each emirate was headed by Emir. He had the responsibility of making laws, enforcing them and maintaining peace and order in his emirate. He is expected to administer the emirate in accordance with the provisions of the Islamic and sharia laws. In fact he was believed to have the divine right to rule. However, each Emir was assisted in the administration of emirate by a number of advisers among these are: waziri, galadima, madaki, dogari, maaji, sarkin ruwa, sarkin fada and sarkin pawa. With these advisers he was able to administer his emirate successfully. Yoruba Kingdom Historically the Yoruba people have been the dominant group on the west bank of the Niger. Their nearest linguistic relatives are the Igala who live on the opposite side of the Nigers divergence from the Benue, and from whom they are believed to have split about 2,000 years ago. The Yoruba were organized in mostly patrilineal groups that occupied village communities and subsisted on agriculture. From approximately the 8th century A. D. , adjacent village compounds called ile coalesced into numerous territorial city-states in which clan loyalties became subordinate to dynastic chieftains. Urbanization was accompanied by high levels of artistic achievement, particularly in terracotta and ivory sculpture and in the sophisticated metal casting produced at Ife. The Yoruba paid (and a number of them around the world still pay) tribute to a pantheon composed of an impersonal Supreme Deity, Olorun, and 400 lesser deities who perform various tasks. Oduduwa is regarded as both the creator of the earth and the ancestor of the Yoruba kings. According to one of the various myths about him, he founded Ife and dispatched his sons and daughters to establish similar kingdoms in other parts of what is today known as Yorubaland. In the Yoruba Kingdom Oyo was a vast empire hence it was divided into different Province for administrative purpose and convenience. It was the most outstanding and popular in the entire Yoruba Kingdom. The Yoruba Kingdom has some level organization with clear hierarchy of authority and well established political system such that no single person wields absolute power. There is a strict check and balance to ensure that there was no abuse of power. The political head of the Yoruba Kingdom was the Alafin who was choosen by the Oyomesi ( i. e. the hereditary ingmakers of the empire). The Alafin was assisted by the Aremo, Bashorun, Oyomesi and others in administration of the empire. Bashorun (Prime Minister) and the Oyomesi Played a very key role in the administration of the entire Kingdom. Each province was administered by Ajele or Oba. They guarantee the payment of tribute and paying of homage to Oyo. There was a claim that these rulers had the power to threaten any hardened Alafin or chief by invoking the god of thunder and lightning through the cult of Sango. The Are- ona- kankanfo was the head of the Army in the Yoruba Kingdom. It was claim that if the army suffers any defeat the Are-ona-kankanfo should commit suicide. This is to make the army very strong. Igbo Political system The Igbo Kingdom doesn’t have an organized political system. They have rather a fragmented political system where political powers were share among the myriad institutions that dominated the polity. There was obviously no presence of centralization of power and political authority in the Igbo Kingdom. It was more of a direct participation of the people in their government. Their system is an epitome of direct democracy. The Igbo Kingdom/Political System was based on the village as a political unit. A village is taken to be an inhabitants from the same families thereby each family head hold the Ofo title and all of them congregate to formed the council of Elders. It was the council that governed the village and at the village meeting, every adult was expected to participate in the deliberations. During any council deliberation Okpara who is considered the most senior among the Ofos reserved the right to preside over the council of Elders meetings were issues affecting the people were discussed and implemented. The effective administration of the village was on the shoulders of the Age grades. They were responsible for the implementation of policies as well as enforcement and maintenance of laws and order within their milieu. They also provide security and defence for the entire community. It should be noted also that the affairs of the village are discussed family heads (council of Elders), while the villagers made laws themselves, the age-grade too made laws on some vital issue(s) they deem fit. In an even where disputes arise family heads were the one dully empower to settle such. They settle disputes between families and individuals for a peaceful coexistence and only serious matters were referred to the council of Elders. Amalgamation of Northern and Southern Protectorate (1914) Finally, in 1914, the two British administrations were merged (i. e. the Northern and Southern Protectorate were amalgamated) by Lord Lugard to form a single territorial unit known as Nigeria and he became the first Governor-General. This territory was administered by the British until 1960 when the Union Jack (British flag) was lowered for the Nigeria flag to take its place. NIGERIA PRE-INDEPENENCE CONSTITUTIONS The Clifford Constitution of 1922 Sir Hugh Clifford succeeded Lord Lugard and became governor of Nigeria in 1922. He immediately abolished the Nigerian council and in its place a new legislative council was set up for the whole of the Southern Protectorate. The North was to be governed by proclamation coming from the governor. Also, it is worthy of note that the pre-independence constitution was faced with several review and adjustment for the purpose of administrative convenience. The first pre-independence constitution in Nigerian was the Clifford constitution of 1922. This constitution introduce the elective principle by the town council composed of forty-six members, twenty seven of whom including the governor are official members of the remaining nineteen un official members fifteen were nominated by the Governor while only four were elected and three of the elected seats were allocated to Lagos and one to Calabar. In total, there were ten Africans in council and four of them were elected. The Richard constitution 1946 Prior to the Richard constitution of 1946, there were series of political and economic agitating by Nigerian, propelled by the Nationalist activities propagated by the Nigerian youth Movement particularly by elites who were alienated from participation in their own affair and government by the colonial government. Therefore, there were press propaganda, activities of trade union movements and general strike in 1945. By January 1947, the Imperial Order and Council referred to as the Richard Constitution came into force. It was based on a proposal contained in a white paper that was approved by the Nigerian council, amended by the imperial parliaments before passed into law. The object of the Richard constitution where to promote the unity of the country, provide adequately for the desire of diverse elements which made up the country and secure greater participation by Africans in the discussion of their own affairs. This constitution brought the North and South under a single legislative authority for the first time. The McPherson constitution 1951 The McPherson constitution was formed to replace the truncated constitution of 1946 which was lacking in so many areas regarding indigenous interest. The constitution gave legislative authority on specific matters to the Regional houses contrary to that of the Richards constitution. This authority was also limited, as regions had no exclusive competence over matters specifically assigned to it by constitution. While the central legislative had an unlimited power to veto propose legislations at the region . he constitution established Executive councils at regions as well as at the centre, which was later, otherwise called council of Ministers. The constitution made the Region to greatly depend on the centre . The control of Revenue was according to provision of the Revenue order in council 1951, where payment to the Regions by the centre was stated. Here the second chamber of legislature (House of chiefs) provided in the west a boost to representational government. The Littleton constitution of 1954: This was predicated on failures of the 1951 constitution as a result of the London conference of 1953 and Lagos conference of 1954 . vidently for the first time there was introduction of the principle of separation of power in the Nigeria Government . Governor-General and Governors were no longer part of legislative, and thus federation was adopted where power was shared for the central and regional government by the constitution and the exclusive list and Residual list respectively also goes to emphasis it. Office of the speaker aand a deputy speaker were created . the council of Minister was compose, Governor-General as pres ident. Revenue Allocation to regions was on the basis of derivation, Lagos was officially declared as the federal capital territory. And Nigeria elites were given better opportunities to participate in the Administration of the c country. NIGERIN PAST LEADERS FROM 1960 TO DATE Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (October 1, 1960 January 15, 1966) After Nigeria gained independence from Britain in 1960, an all-Nigerian Executive Council lead by Prime Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was created to lead the country. On November 16, 1960, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, a pioneer of West African nationalism, became the first Governor General of a Federation of three Regions: the North, the East and the West, with Lagos as the Federal Capital. Each of the Regions was headed by a Premier with a Governor as its ceremonial head. On October 1, 1963, Nigeria became a Federal Republic and severed what ties were left with Britain. However, the country decided to remain in the British Commonwealth of Nations. The Governor Generals position was, therefore, re-designated as president. This administration tried to consolidate by joining international organizations it was involved in decolonization process in Africa and stood against the apartheid policy in South Africa. The administration recognized Africa as the centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign policy. The government t also broke diplomatic ties with France over the testing of atomic bomb in sahara desert. Also Ian Smith’s unilateral declaration of independence (UDR) Rhodesia in 1965 was vehemently opposed by the administration. It supported the expulsion of South Africa from commonwealth in 1961. It also played crucial role in the formation of O. A. U in May 25th, 1963. Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa a man full of vision was cut short at the prime of his administration when the military led by Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi January 15, 1966 and sending him to the great beyond. May his soul continue to rest in peace. Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi (January 15, 1966- July 1966) On January 15, 1966, a group of army officers (popularly known as the Young Majors), overthrew the government and assassinated the prime minister, Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, as well as the premiers of the northern and western regions. The bloody nature of the Young Majors coup sparked a counter-coup led by Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. However, the military government he instituted was unable to quiet the ethnic tensions that plagued the country or produce a constitution acceptable to all regions. Most fateful for the Ironsi government was the decision to issue Decree No. 34 on 24 May 1966. The decree, which sought to abolish the federal structure and ostensibly unify the nation, involved renaming the country the Republic of Nigeria. Instead, it raised ethnic fears of a conspiracy by the southern tribes to take over the nation. This led to another coup by largely northern officers in under the leadership of Major-General Yakubu Gowon. On 29th July, 1966 the military government of Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi was vehemently overthrown and unfortunately he could not survive it. Major-General Yakubu Gowon (1966- 1975) and the Nigerian Civil War General Yakubu Gowon took power after one military coup d’etat which led to the dead of Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. Gowon’s administration witnessed a major crisis that shakes the country from its root almost succeeded in uprooting it from its base. During this reign, Nigeria foreign policy changed or shifted emphasis from the West to the East. Most of the weapons used in prosecuting the civil war were largely from East. The post war era of this administration was the application of the 3Rs i. e. Reconstruction, Reconciliation and Rehabilitation. It was the reconciliation project that gave birth to the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC). The administration accepted the principle of non interference in the sovereignty of African States, respect for the principles governing O. A. U. it also played a crucial role in the establishment of Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS) and financial assistance made to the liberation committee of the O. A. U. His government fought to keep Nigeria one during the civil war (1967-1970), which broke out in the aftermath of the regional tensions arising from January and July 1966 coups d’etat. In 1967, Gowon moved to split the four existing regions of Nigeria into 12 states. However, the military governor of the Eastern Region, Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, refused to accept the division. Coming on the heels of a number of massacres of Igbos in several northern cities, he viewed the move as a plot to destabilise the region, and declared the Eastern Region the independent Republic of Biafra. This led to a civil war between Biafra and the rest of Nigeria that started on July 6,, 1967, and continued until the Biafran secessionists surrendered on January 15, 1970. Over 1 million people died in the conflict. Gen. Murtala muhammed (1975-1976) On July 29, 1975, General) Muhammed was made head of state, when General Gowon was overthrown while at an Organisation of African Unity (OAU) summit in Kampala, Uganda. General Obasanjo and General Danjuma were appointed as Chief of Staff, Supreme HQ and Chief of Army Staff, respectively. In the coup detat that brought him to power he introduced the phrases Fellow Nigerians and with immediate effect to the national lexicon. In a short time, Murtala Muhammeds policies won him broad popular support, and his decisiveness elevated him to the status of a folk hero. On assuming office, one of his first acts was to scrap the 1973 census, which was weighted in favor of the north, and to revert to the 1963 count for official purposes. Murtala Muhammad removed top federal and state officials to break links with the Gowon regime and to restore public confidence in the federal government. More than 10,000 public officials and employees were dismissed without benefits, on account of age, health, incompetence, or malpractice. The purge affected the civil service, judiciary, police and armed forces, diplomatic service, public corporations, and universities. Some officials were brought to trial on charges of corruption. Murtala Muhammed was killed along with his aide-de-camp, Lieutenant Akintunde Akinsehinwa, on February 13, 1976 in an abortive coup attempt led by Lt. Col Buka Suka Dimka, when his car was ambushed while en route to his office at Dodan Barracks, Lagos. General Olu gun Mathew Okiki? la Ar? mu ? basanj? 1976-1979 Obasanjo was appointed as head of state by the Supreme Military Council after the assassination of General Murtala Mohammed. Keeping the chain of command established by Murtala, Obasanjo pledged to continue the programme for the restoration of civilian government in 1979 and to carry forward the reform programme to improve the quality of public service. Obasanjo had a smooth transition from military to civilian in 1979, he handed power to a democratically elected candidate in the person of Shehu Shagari. Shehu Shagari 1979-1983 Shagari won the 1979 election with the help of his campaign manager, Umaru Dikko. The campaign had the support of many prominent politicians in the North and among southern minorities. The partys motto was One Nation, One Destiny and was seen as the party best representing Nigerias diversity. Shagari made Housing, Industries, Transportation and Agriculture as the major goals of his administration, particularly in early on during the oil boom. Despite some successes, these programs were heavily plagued by corruption. General Mahammadu Buhari on New Years Eve in 1983, December 31, overthrown Shehu Shagari and plunged the country into yet another military administration. General Mahammadu Buhari 1983-1985 General Mahammadu Buhari on New Years Eve in 1983, December 31, overthrown Shehu Shagari and plunged the country into yet another military administration. Major-General Buhari was selected to lead the country by middle and high-ranking military officers after a successful military coup detat that overthrew civilian. At the time, Buhari was head of the Third Armored Division of Jos Buhari was appointed Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, and Tunde Idiagbon was appointed Chief of General Staff (the de facto No. 2 in the administration). Buhari justified the militarys seizure of power by castigating the civilian government as hopelessly corrupt, and his administration subsequently initiated a public campaign against indiscipline known as War Against Indiscipline (WAI). Aspects of this campaign included public humiliation of civil servants who arrived late for work whilst guards were armed with whips to ensure orderly queues at bus stops. He also moved to silence critics of his administration, passing decrees curbing press freedoms and allowing for opponents to be detained up to three months without formal charges. He also banned strikes and lockouts by workers and founded Nigerias first secret police force, the National Security Organization. General Ibrahim Babangida overthrew Buhari on 27 August 1985 in a bloodless military coup that relied on mid-level officers that Babangida strategically positioned over the years. General Ibrahim Babangida 1985-1993 General Ibrahim Babangida overthrew Buhari on 27 August 1985 in a bloodless military coup that relied on mid-level officers that Babangida strategically positioned over the years. Before the coup, he was the Chief of Army Staff and a member of the Supreme Military Council (SMC) under the administration of Major General Muhammadu Buhari. Having ceased power from his predecessor, he promised to bring to an end the human rights abuses perpetuated by Buharis government, and to hand over power to a civilian government by 1990. Eventually, he perpetuated one of the worst human right abuses and lots of unresolved political assassinations. Babangida issued a referendum to garner support for austerity measures suggested by the International Monetory Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, and subsequently launched his Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) in 1986. The policies entailed under the SAP were the deregulation of the agricultural sector by abolishing marketing boards and the elimination of price controls, the privatisation of public enterprises, the devaluation of the Nairal to aid the competitiveness of the export sector, and the relaxation of restraints on foreign investment put in place by the Gowon and Obasanjo governments during the 1970s. On April 22, 1990, Babangidas government was almost toppled by a coup attempt led by Major Gideon Orkar. Babangida was at the Dodan Barracks, the military headquarters and presidential residence, when they were attacked and occupied by the rebel troops, but managed to escape by a back route. During the brief interlude during which Orkar and his collaborators controlled radio transmitters in Lagos, they broadcast a vehement critique of Babangidas government, accusing it of widespread corruption and autocratic tendencies, and they also expelled the five northernmost and predominantly Hausa-Fulani Nigerian states from the union, accusing them of seeking to perpetuate their rule at the expense of the predominantly Christian peoples of Nigerias middle-belt citing, in particular, the political neutralization of the Langtang Mafia. In 1989 Babangida legalized the formation of political parties, and after a census was carried out in November 1991, the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) announced on January 24, 1992 that both legislative elections to a bicameral National Assembly and a presidential election would be held that year. He banned all political parties and formed two political parties by himself, namely the SDP (Social Democratic Party) and NRC (National Republican Convention) and urged all Nigerians to join either of the parties, which the Late Chief Ajibola Ige famously referred to as two leper hands. At the end of the elections, rather than allow the announcement of the results of various elections in which Abiola won to proceed, Babangida decided to annul the elections. On August 26, amidst a new round of strikes and protests that had brought all economic activity in the country to a halt, Babangida declared that he was stepping aside as head of the military regime, and handing over t he reins of government to Shonekan. Ernest Adegunle Oladeinde Shonekan Head of Transitional Council January 2nd, 1993 Ernest Adegunle Oladeinde Shonekan was appointed as interim president of Nigeria by General Ibrahim Babangida on 26 August 1993. Babangida resigned under pressure to cede control to a democratic government. Shonekans transitional administration only lasted three months, as a palace coup led by General Sani Abacha forcefully dismantled the remaining democratic institutions and brought the government back under military control on 17 November 1993. The government was hard pressed on debt obligations and had to hold constant talks for debt re-scheduling. Improvements were underway. The Armed Force Ruling Council had designed a realistic two-year economic program. The programs outline called for reducing the petrol subsidy, to bring in 65 billion naira to government coffers. A modification of VAT was also in the works and a plan to inculcate fiscal discipline. By the end of June, following the cancellation of the June 12 presidential elections, the Nigerian nation was engulfed in political turmoil. Fiscal discipline was not heeded, and the government exceeded the deficit target by the beginning of the second quarter. By August 1993, Babangida decided to step aside and install an Interim government. General Sani Abacha 1993-1998 Abacha took over power from the interim government of Chief Ernest Shonekan, who was put into place by General Ibrahim Babangida after his annulment of the 12 June 1993 elections (won by Moshood Kashimawo Abiola), this caused a massive popular uproar, which in turn caused untold hardship for some of Nigerians. On 6 September 1994, Abacha declared that his regime had absolute power, placing his government above the jurisdiction of the courts. He did, however, promise to hand the government over to civilians in 1998. His government compared to other Nigerian governments was characterised by an inconsistent foreign policy: He supported the Economic Community of West African States and sent Nigerian troops to Liberia and Sierra Leon to restore democracy to those countries while denying it at home. Abacha scoffed at the threat of economic sanctions on account of the worlds dependence on petroleum, of which Nigeria is a major producer. General Sani Abacha died in June 1998 while at the presidential villa in Abuja. General Abdulsalami Abubakar June 8th 1998-May 29th 1999 Following the death of General Sani Abacha on June 8, 1998, General Abdulsalami Abubakar was appointed to replace the late head of state. The Abubakar government took steps toward restoring worker rights and freedom of association for trade unions, which had deteriorated seriously under Abacha. He also commuted the sentences of those accused in the alleged coup during the Abacha regime and released almost all known civilian political detainees. In August 1998, Abubakar appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, the national assembly, and president. The INEC successfully held elections on December 5, 1998, January 9, 1999, February 20, and February 27, 1999, respectively. Former military head of state, Olusegun Obasanjo ran as a civilian candidate under the auspices of Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) and won the presidential election. Olusegun Obasanjo 1999-2007 In the 1999 elections, the first in sixteen years, he decided to run for the presidency as the candidate of the People’s Democratic Party. Obasanjo won with 62. 6% of the vote, sweeping the strongly Christian Southeast and the predominantly Musilim north, but decisively lost his home region, the Southwest, to his fellow-Yoruba and Christian, Olu Falae, the only other candidate. His loss in the South West has been attributed to his being very unpopular amongst his kinsmen in the South-West. This was because he over the time had come to represent policies and actions that tend to burden the majority of the people. The Yorubas, his kinsmen are known to deride oppressors. Apart from this, he was also against the Yorubas rigorous quest to revalidate the election won by Chief MKO Abiola in 1993. These aggregates of issues made the Yorubas suspecious of him and they expressed this by massively voting against him in 1999. 29 May 1999, the day Obasanjo took office as the first elected and civilian head of state in Nigeria after 16 years of military rule, is now commemorated as Democracy Day, a public holiday in Nigeria. Obasanjo spent most of his first term travelling abroad visiting mostly western countries. He claimed this was to polish the country image and re-establish the country to international scene after being battered and stained by the regime of Gen Abacha. Obasanjo left office on 29th May, 2007. Umaru YarAdua 2007-2010 In the presidential election, held on 21 April 2007, YarAdua won with 70% of the vote (24. 6 million votes) according to official results released on 23 April. After the election, YarAdua proposed a government of national unity.